James Alexander

..Furthermore, characterization of immunological pathways that are responsible for resistance or susceptibility to Leishmania has given rise to the Th1/Th2 paradigm of cellular/humoral dominance of the immune response...

..Collectively our results suggest that IL-4 plays a critical role in early lesion development, and that IL-13 plays a crucial part in maintaining a chronic non-healing infection...

..These studies demonstrate a role for IL-4 in pregnancy-induced immunosuppression and the associated increased susceptibility to T. gondii infection...

..This article reviews, using Leishmania species in particular, the circumstances under which these cytokines can promote protective type-1 immunity...

..These results demonstrate that IL-4 has an important role in effective anti-leishmanial chemotherapy which seems to be related to modulation of IFN-gamma production...

..Clearly a reappraisal of our current understanding of the role of IL-4 and the Th2 response in the immunobiology of leishmaniasis is required and this review seeks to address this issue...

..This study confirms that L. mexicana CPs are virulence factors and that ICPs have therapeutic potential...

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..Our data demonstrate for the first time that a hormone has the ability to regulate selectively the expression of different genes associated with alternative macrophage activation...

..This study provides the first evidence of a specific role for IL-33 receptor signalling in the brain as well as highlighting the requirement of this mechanism in limiting infection with an intracellular parasite...

..Overall, these studies demonstrate that progesterone can differentially regulate the signaling pathways employed by TLR3 and TLR4 agonists to affect costimulatory molecule expression and cytokine production...

..Together, this shows that the development of host protective Th2 responses accompanied by parasite loss is independent of IL-4Ralpha expression on CD4(+) T cells and macrophages/neutrophils...

..donovani, both as effector cells involved in the killing of the parasites and as significant players influencing the development of a protective Th1 immune response...

..These findings show for the first time a role for MKP-2 in vivo and demonstrate that MKP-2 may be essential in orchestrating protection against intracellular infection at the level of the macrophage...

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..8 resulted in a degree of protection associated with inhibition of lesion growth and a Th1 response. Thus, CPB2.8 is a potent Th2-inducing molecule capable of significant vaccine potential if administered with a suitable adjuvant...

..Consequently IL-18 during L. mexicana infection of BALB/c mice promotes a Th2 biased response and thereby has a disease exacerbating role...

..gondii during pregnancy is more likely to be related to the ability of the hormone to downregulate IL-12 production and a type-1 response utilizing the progesterone as well as the glucocorticoid receptors...

..However, both bilosome formulations (BV-TT, low, and high doses), though not un-entrapped TT, caused a rise in the numbers of IgA positive plasma cells observed in the small intestine, primarily in the first 15 cm of the small intestine...

..gondii infection. Our results highlight an important role for parasite-specific IgM in limiting systemic dissemination of tachyzoites during early acute T. gondii infection...

..Consequently, in L. donovani infected BALB/c mice, IL-13 promotes hepatic granuloma formation and controls parasite burdens independently of direct effects on macrophages/neutrophils...

..We conclude that alum adjuvants can induce IL-4 production and Th2 responses independently of IL-4 or IL-13, negating the requirement for an early source of IL-4 in the Th2 response induced by this adjuvant...

..Collectively, our results suggest that the amastigote-specific cysteine peptidases of L. mexicana are central to the ability of the parasite to modulate signaling via NF-kappaB and consequently inhibit IL-12 production...

..The exacerbatory role of IL-4 in the intestine was found by competitive RT-PCR not to be associated with increased parasite burdens but was related to comparative expression of IL-10...

..However, although production of the Th2 cytokine IL-5 was totally inhibited in IL-4-deficient mice inoculated with FCA/OVA, there was no significant difference in IL-5 production between the two strains when alum was used as adjuvant...

..mexicana, initial lesion growth in BALB/c mice is dependent on non-T cell population(s) responsive to IL-4/IL-13 while progressive infection is dependent on CD4(+) T cells responsive to IL-4...

..Our results therefore document that CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells suppress both Th1 and Th2 cells and that these regulatory T cells have a profound therapeutic potential against diseases induced by both Th1 and Th2 cells in vivo...

..These results indicate that while alum-induced IL-18 can facilitate Th2 induction, the addition of exogenous IL-18 cannot further enhance the alum-induced Th2 response...

..abstract truncated at 400 words)..

..Furthermore, the results also imply that immunopotentiating effects of FCA or Alum adjuvant are both inhibited by IL-6...

..Here, we review some of the recent developments and discuss how these observations can be further developed to understand the immunology of cutaneous Leishmania infection in vivo...

..The initial studies described in this review indicate that cytokines play an important, if not the central, role in the ability of adjuvants to influence both the quantity and quality of immune responses...

..In this article we review the impact of sex-associated hormones on the immune system and the development and maintenance of immunity to the intracellular protozoan parasites Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium spp., and Leishmania spp...

..The results indicate differences in the protective mechanisms operating between adult acquired disease and congenital transmission and have significant implications for future vaccine development...

..Our results therefore indicate that macrophages respond to endocytosis of large or small vesicles by producing different patterns of cytokines that can subsequently direct the immune response toward a Th1 or a Th2 phenotype...

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..009) and was equivalent to antigen administration by the subcutaneous route. No IgG2a was induced, indicating the generation of a TH2 response. Significant mucosal IgA levels were also observed with this treatment group (P=0.05)...

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..Specific IgM therefore plays an important role in the limitation of parasite replication during asexual erythrocytic P. chabaudi AS infection...

..Potential mechanisms responsible for these changes in behaviour including the role of tryptophan metabolism and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis are discussed...

..Taking into account the opposing needs of limiting parasite multiplication and minimizing tissue destruction we review the pathogenesis of OT in the murine model...

..In particular we update on our studies using conditional IL-4Rα gene-deficient mice that have allowed dissection of the cell interplay dictating the disease outcomes of the major Leishmania species infecting humans...

..These results demonstrate alterations to components of immune privilege as a result of ocular toxoplasmosis and a role for IL-6 in controlling parasite numbers and inflammation in the eye...

..The review is intended as a practical guide that will allow other researchers to adopt effective strategies to permit the translation of an effective experimental formulation to a viable commercial product...

..amazonensis, does play a significant role in regulating the development of a protective Th1-type response. However, effective resolution of infection with these New World parasites requires neutralization of both IL-4 and IL-10...

..IL-4 and IL-13 appear to play little role in regulating collagen deposition in L. donovani-induced granulomas...

..These studies confirm that L. mexicana cysteine proteases are important virulence factors and provide an explanation for the presence in L. mexicana of a multicopy tandem array of CPB genes...

..major. These data indicate that cysteine proteases of L. mexicana are critical in suppressing protective immune responses and that inhibition of CPB may prove to be a valuable immunomodulatory strategy for chronic forms of leishmaniasis...

..These variations not only point to interesting features of the host-pathogen interaction and immunobiology of this genus of parasitic protozoa, but also have important implications for immunotherapy and vaccine development...

..We propose that this function of natural antibodies could be exploited when developing new vaccines for infectious diseases...

..These findings suggest that, early during C. parvum infection of BALB/c mice, there is production of IL-4 that promotes Th1-mediated immunity...

..These topics are the focus of this review...

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..Furthermore, a beneficial role for IL-4Ralpha signaling in L. major infection is revealed in which IL-4/IL-13-responsive non-CD4+ T cells induce protective responses...