Michael Gleeson

..To discuss the advantages and limitations of the methods currently available to assess changes in human immune function in response to interventions such as changes in diet or exercise...

..It is concluded that high IL-10 production in response to antigen challenge and low S-IgA secretion are risk factors for development of URTI in physically active individuals...

..This expert statement provides a background summarizing the evidence together with extensive conclusions and practical guidelines...

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..g. IL-6, IL-10, IL-Ira) causing temporary inhibition of type 1 T cell cytokine production with a relative dampening of the type I (cell-mediated) response...

..Further research is needed to evaluate the effects of other antioxidants and dietary immunostimulants such as probiotics and echinacea on exercise-induced immune impairment...

..Furthermore, the disturbances of immunoendocrine responses induced by two bouts of prolonged exercise on the same day recover within 18 h...

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..In this Review, we focus on the known mechanisms by which exercise - both acute and chronic - exerts its anti-inflammatory effects, and we discuss the implications of these effects for the prevention and treatment of disease...

..To evaluate the effects of exercise on immune function in relation to infection susceptibility...

..Sex differences in immune function among athletes probably do not need to be considered in future mixed gender studies on exercise, infection and immune function unless the focus is on mucosal immunity or NK cells...

..Convincing evidence that so-called 'immune-boosting' supplements, including high doses of antioxidant vitamins, glutamine, zinc, probiotics and Echinacea, prevent exercise-induced immune impairment is currently lacking...

..The 2nd prolonged exercise bout caused greater immunoendocrine responses but lower plasma glucose levels and neutrophil function compared with the 1st bout...

..075). These results suggest that supplementation with VC for a period of up to 2 weeks provides little to no protection against the depression of neutrophil function which typically occurs after endurance exercise...

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..These results demonstrate that TLR function is subject to modulation under physiological conditions in vivo and provide evidence for the role of immunomodulatory hormones in the regulation of TLR function...

..These findings indicate that a state of overreaching can already be induced after 7 days of intensified training with limited recovery...

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..The findings of this study suggest that physical stress reduces T cell migration towards HRV-infected cell supernatants and that ingestion of CHO can lessen this effect...

..These results suggest a possible mechanism for the increased incidence of infection reported during chronic exercise training via modulation of type 1/type 2 T lymphocyte distribution...

..exercise (Jeffrey Woods); acquired immunity and exercise (Nicolette Bishop); mucosal immunity and exercise (Michael Gleeson and Nicolette Bishop); immunological methods in exercise immunology (Monika Fleshner); anti-inflammatory ..

..Caffeine is thought to act as a central stimulant and to have effects on physical, cognitive, and psychomotor functioning...

..Regular ingestion of LcS appears to be beneficial in reducing the frequency of URTI in an athletic cohort, which may be related to better maintenance of saliva IgA levels during a winter period of training and competition...

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..The relationship between physiological and psychological stress and immune function is widely recognized; however, there is little evidence to confirm a direct link between depressed immune function and incidence of illness in athletes...

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..This study indicates that the 55/80 cycle protocol induces a prolonged salivary and plasma cortisol and salivary testosterone response compared with the other trials and so may be a useful diagnostic tool of overreaching...

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..05). This study showed that prolonged cycling at 75% VO(2peak) temporarily reduces TLR4 expression, which may in part be responsible for post-exercise immunodepression...

..These results suggest that regular DC intake is associated with reduced oxidative-stress markers and increased mobilization of free fatty acids after exercise but has no observed effect on exercise performance...

..Acute intakes of BCAA supplements of about 10-30 g/d seem to be without ill effect. However, the suggested reasons for taking such supplements have not received much support from well-controlled scientific studies...

..These effects appear to be associated with changes in sympathetic activity and not the hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis...

..Fat oxidation rates are high over a large range of intensities; however, at exercise intensities above Fat(max), fat oxidation rates drop markedly...

..Our results show that carbohydrate ingestion during any period of two prolonged exercise bouts does not induce different effects on oral immunity compared with placebo...

..Finally, although an exercise-induced increase in the plasma IL-6 concentration was observed, this effect was independent of pre-exercise CHO ingestion...

..Thus, the GI of a pre-exercise meal influences leukocyte trafficking and plasma glucose but has limited effects on circulating stress hormone and cytokine responses to exercise...

..Decreased endocrine responsiveness to exercise may be implicated in the decreased performance and increased mood disturbance characteristic of overreaching...

..The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of daily vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid, 1000 mg x d(-1)) and vitamin E (RRR-alpha-tocopherol, 400 IU x d(-1)) supplementation on immunoendocrine responses to prolonged exercise...

..This was associated with an increase in fatigue and generalised malaise which lends support to the recent cytokine theories of unexplained, underperformance syndrome...

..It would be valuable to include several immune markers in addition to clinical outcome in future clinical trials in this area, as there is too little evidence that correlates markers with global health improvement...

..During such exercise, sympathetic stimulation appears to be strong enough to inhibit saliva flow rate; however, it appears that it does not increase sIgA output via transcytosis...

..Furthermore, 4 different peripheral degeneration patterns were described. The factors responsible for the different degeneration behaviors are still not understood and need further investigation...